Protective clothing has been developed for people who work around radioactive materials on a regular basis or who might be called to respond to a nuclear accident where radioactivity has been released into the environment.

Some ordinary fabrics can shield the skin from the ultraviolet light of the sun but others provide no protection. If you are concerned about sun exposure, you should check to insure that the material in shirts, hats, pants and shoes can block UV rays. Some but not all sunglasses block UV radiation.

Pregnant women who are concerned about everyday radiation from things like microwave ovens and laptop computers can now buy special blankets such as Belly Armor to protect the fetus in their womb.

            Glasses and face masking shields employing lead and acrylic plastic are used where there is a danger of radiation exposure to the face. They are primarily used by X-ray technicians.

            Gloves that reduce radiation exposure are available from many manufacturers. Older gloves employed lead and often required the use of powder on the hands before they were worn. Newer designs are thinner and more flexible without lead in the materials and without the need for powders. The gloves provide protection against alpha, beta, gamma and x-ray radiation. Applications include fluoroscopy, handling of radio isotopes, x-ray equipment operation and nuclear medicine.

            Rubber boots are manufactured for use against radiation. Like the gloves, the materials have become thinner, more flexible and do not have to utilize lead. There are galoshes style that are worn over regular shoes or boots as well as boots that are worn alone. These boots are used in environments where there may be radioactive materials on the ground or floor of a building. The boots provide protection against alpha, beta, gamma and x-ray radiation.

            Lead aprons and vests are used to protected patients and staff in x-ray facilities. Recently new materials have been developed which do not require lead for x-ray protection. This makes the materials in the aprons and vests lighter, thinner, more flexible and easier to clean.

            Full body suits are worn in environments where there is a danger of radiation exposure to the whole body. Once again, the older design of the suits employed lead in the materials but new materials such as Demron employ nanotechnology and do not require lead to provide good radiation protection t against alpha, beta, gamma and x-ray radiation.

Hazmat suits include full head covering hoods with a protective transparent face shields. They are sealed against air borne radioactive dust and moisture and utilize a filter system to permit the wearer to breath clear air. There are also suits that are sealed and have their own air tanks for use in very dangerous environments where the air contains toxic gases.

Eventually with the evolution of exoskeletons, emergency workers who have to deal with nuclear accidents at nuclear power plants will wear special suits of armor which will not only protect them from radiation but will also amplify their strength.

 

Radioactive materials are widely used in our high-tech society. There are medical application, industrial applications, research applications, nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons development. In addition, there is a great deal of radioactive waste left over from past uses. What can be done to protect people from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation?

            The damage done by radiation depends on the duration of the exposure, the distance from the source and the amount of radiation being emitted by the source.  Radiation protection is working with these three factors to reduce exposure.

            Duration of exposure can be reduced by improvement of procedures and good training of the people handling the radioactive material.

            Distance from the source can be increased by using remote handling equipment such as tongs, waldos and robots.

            Radiation escaping from the source can be reduced by the use of various shielding materials such as lead. The effectiveness of the radiation shielding material is related to both the density of the material and the thickness of the shield. Some elements are more effective at absorbing radioactivity than others.

            There are recommended international standards for protecting people from radiation exposure published by the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Most countries have some agency that issues permits to organizations requiring adherence to these guidelines.

            Any use of radioactive materials must have a strong justification where the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. There are limits for how much radiation a particular individual should be exposed to.  And there is the demand that everything possible be done to reduce the exposure of any individual to the absolutely lowest level possible.

            Alpha particles or helium nuclei can be stopped by a single sheet of paper.

            Beta particles or high energy electrons can be blocked by a an eighth of an inch of aluminum.  Glass, plastic, aluminum, wood or other low density materials are used to block beta radiation because higher density materials will give rise to additional radiation as the electrons interact with their atoms.

            Electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays are blocked by dense materials such as lead.  Lead is dense enough so that only an inch may be sufficient but other materials must be much thicker. Nuclear reactors utilize thick concrete walls in addition to lead. Ultraviolet light is also ionizing but can be easily blocked by thin layers of clothing, sunglasses or sunscreen ointment.

            Neutrons are very penetrating and much more difficult to shield than other types of radiation. Thick dense materials must be used but they can be rendered radioactive by the passing neutrons and cause additional problems for exposure and shielding.

            If you are going to be around radioactive materials, be sure that you understand the types and dangers. Follow all instructions to the letter and spend the minimal time necessary for your purpose. Use a dosimeter to keep track of your exposure and pay close attention to what it shows.

 

            Radiation is used to treat many different cancers. About one half of the new invasive cancer cases will be treated with radiation. The procedures and equipment have been developed to optimized damage to the cancerous tumors and tissue with minimal damage to surrounding healthy tissue. When a beam of radiation is directed at a tumor, the normal tissue in the path of the beam can be damaged.

            People vary in their sensitivity to therapeutic radiation and it is not possible to know in advance who may be the most sensitive and at risk from collateral damage. Damage to health tissue is divided into two types. Acute reactions are immediate effects of the radiation treatment. Chronic complications can occur months or years after treatment. Chronic damage to bones is called osteoradionecrosis. Chronic damage to soft tissue is called soft tissue radionecrosis.

            Acute reactions are treated symptomatically during the treatment of the cancer. If the normal tissue that is damaged is fast growing like gastrointestinal cells, normal tissue healing takes care of the radiation damage. Pain medication may be prescribed to relieve discomfort. This period usually lasts about six months which is referred to as the acute clinical period.

            During the second six months, the subacute clinical period, healing from acute damage ends and first signs of any long term damage appear. There may be ulceration of the tissue.           In the past, surgery was often required to cut out the dead tissue Depending on the area where the cancer occurred, such surgery could disfigure or even disable normal functioning. In addition, dead normal tissue in the path of the radiation may not heal after being cut during surgery.

            Most chronic radiation damage results from scarring which narrows the blood vessels in the area of the treatment. During the second to the fifth year which is called the chronic clinical period, permanent damage progresses. Without adequate blood flow, health tissue in area treated dies in what is called necrosis. During this time, danger of infection and trauma damage in the affected tissue increases.   

            In the late clinical period after five years have elapsed, problems can continue to manifest but at a slower rate than the chronic clinical period. There is increased danger of additional cancers caused by the original radiation treatment.

            In the 1970s, a treatment for tissue damaged by radiation was developed that utilized a chamber with raised oxygen levels. This is called a hyperbaric chamber. The treatment consists of providing 100% inhaled oxygen under pressure. This results in raising arterial oxygen five to ten times above the normal level. Perfusion of oxygen into the damaged tissue increases two to three times. This promotes healing and encourages the development of new blood vessels in the damaged tissue. The main benefit of hyperbaric treatment is this growth of new blood vessels which is known angiogenesis.

            This treatment may preclude the need for surgery. Many types of healthy tissue damaged in radiation treatments have been healed with these chambers.

            Hyper-Oxy Vitaeris 320 hyperbaric chamber:

 

          Skin can be damaged by exposure to radioactivity either by accident or by medical treatments involving radioisotopes. Some of the symptoms accompanying radiation exposure include redness, swelling, numbness, itching, tingling, dryness, peeling, changes in color, loss of hair, thinning, hardening and open wounds.  The natural healing capability of the human epidermis can deal with some radiation damage. Exposure to the sun, extremes of temperature, harsh soaps or chemicals should be avoided. There are also medical treatments which can assist healing radiation damage.  

          There are a large variety of topical creams, ointments, oils, moisturizers and other commercial products for treating skin irritation. It is recommended that skin treatments that contain perfumes, deodorants and alcohol not be used for radiation damage. Products containing vitamin E and Aloe Vera have been found to be soothing and to promote healing. Skin treatment products should be applied gently and in accord with product instructions. These products may be useful for minor skin irritations but open wounds should be examined by a physician and only use skin treatments products that are approved by the physician should be employed. 

          Itching often accompanies radiation skin damage. It can be a serious problem because the natural inclination is to scratch the itch. While this may provides temporary relief, in the long run it may aggravate the skin problem. It may be possible to get some symptomatic relief from radiation caused itching with the use of some over the counter skin soothing compounds. Ingredients which are often found in such products include menthol, calamine, camphor, eucalyptus, phenyleprine hydrochloride, diphenydramine hydrochloride, and other compounds. Severe itching can required something stronger and a doctor may suggest a prescription medication for treatment of itching. OTC oral antihistamines tablets such as diphenhydramine, chlorpheneramine, loratadine, fexofenadine, certirizine, clemastine  In addition, doctors may prescribe oral antihistamines such as levocetirizine, carbinoxamine, cyproheptadine, hydroxyzine, azelastine, doxepin.

          Radiation damage to the skin may be accompanied by inflammation which would require the use of anti-inflammatory drugs. Corticosteroid compounds such as hydrocortisone in concentrations of up to 1 percent are found in ointments and creams commonly to treat inflammation of the skin. Sometimes, corticosteroids are injected to treat skin inflammation.  Non-steroidal drugs, also referred to as NSAIDs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and acetaminophen can also be used to treat inflammation.

          In some cases the skin may be broken and susceptible to infection after damage by radiation. In order to heal this condition, antibiotics must be added to the treatment in addition to the medication used to sooth and heal the irritation, itching and inflammation. Antibiotics may be administered oral, by injection or in the form of topical creams or ointments.

Radiation%20Burn%20-%20Hand.jpg

 

            There a number of different websites that monitor radioactivity at various locations in the U.S. and around the world in real-time. There was an explosion of new websites after the Fukushima disaster but some of them have already disappeared. Here is a list of some of the monitoring websites that are currently active. (Several of these have been detailed in previous posts on this blog.)

            Radiation Network is primarily aimed at the United States. Individuals buy Geiger counters and connected them to the Internet. There software package that allows them to register with the network and start uploading readings on levels of local radioactivity.

            Radnet is maintained by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. it show monitoring data from EPA monitoring stations spread across the U.S. They monitor air quality, rain water, drinking water and milk.

             Independent live streaming video of a Geiger counter located in Santa Monica, California, U.S. A. on Upstream video website.

             Federal Office for Civil Protection in Switzerland displays a network of 65 monitoring stations across Switzerland which updates readings on the map every day.

             Federal Office of Radiation Protection in Germany displays a network of 1800 monitoring stations across Germany which updates readings on the map every day.

             Safecast is a website that displays information gathered by over 600,000 private citizens from all over Japan. Each square on the maps contain readings from multiple Geiger counters.

             Japan Radiation Map is maintained by the Institute for Information Design. It shows a map of Japan with color coded squares for radiation levels. Readings are updated daily.

            Japanese Government Prefecture Radiation Readings is a website that provides detail on radiation levels in all the Japanese prefectures. The readings are updated several times daily.

(There are many more radiation monitoring sites in Japan but I only included a couple of the biggest in this list.)

            Hong Kong Observatory maintains a website for 10 monitoring stations across Hong Kong which is updated hourly.

            Russia has a radiation monitoring website where you can zoom in on a location to see a graph of recent radiation readings.

            Serbia has 10 monitoring stations that are updated every half hour.

            Slovenia has 70 monitoring stations that are updated regularly.

            European Radiological Data Exchange Platform is a network centered in Italy that includes 33 European nations created to monitor radiation levels across Europe.

            There are other sources of radiation monitoring information available but these websites contain interactive maps that are the most informative and easy to use.

            Some of these sites are not in English. There are a lot of tools on the web for translating webpages. A couple of the popular tools are Google translate and Microsoft’s Bing Translator.

            Over two hundred radioactive isotopes are manufactured for use in medicine and industry. Radioisotopes can be used to analyze materials, trace flows and treat commodities. Here is a list of commonly used radioisotopes.

Americium-241 has a half-life of 432 years. It is used in backscatter gauges, smoke detectors, in measuring ash content of coal, in measuring toxic lead in dried paint, in measuring thickness in rolling processes for paper and steel.

Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years. It is used to measure the age of water (up to 50,000 years). It is also used in biological research, agriculture, pollution control and in archeology to date artifacts.

Caesium-137 has a half-life of 30 years. It is used for radiotracer technique for identification of sources of soil erosion and deposition, in density and fill height level switches, to measure and control liquid flows in oil pipelines.

Chlorine-36 has a half-life of 400,000 years. It is used to measure sources of chloride and the age of water (up to 2 million years)

Chromium 51 has a half-life of 27.7 days. It is used to tag red blood cells.

Cobalt-60 has a half-life of 5.27 days. It is used in blast furnaces to determine resident times and to quantify yields to measure the furnace performance. It is also used for gamma sterilization, industrial radiography, density and fill height switches as well as in the development of industrial fuel oil burners.

Gold-198 has a half-life of 2.7 days. It is used to study sewage and liquid waste movements, as well as tracing factory waste causing ocean pollution, and to trace sand movement in river beds and ocean floors. It is also used to label sand to study coastal erosion and in blast furnaces to determine resident times and to quantify yields to measure the furnace performance

Hydrogen-3 has a half-life of 12.35 years It is used as a tracer to study sewage and liquid wastes and to measure ‘young’ groundwater (up to 30 years.

Iridium-192 has a half-life of 74 days. It is used in gamma radiography to locate flaws in metal components such as pipeline welds, boilers and aircraft parts..

Krypton-85 has a half-life of 10.72 years. It is used for industrial gauging, in indicator lights in domestic appliances, and to measure dust and pollutant levels.

Lanthanum-140 has a half-life of 40.272 hours. It is used together in blast furnaces to determine resident times and to quantify yields to measure the furnace performance.

Lead-210 has a half-life of 22.3 years. It is used to date layers of sand and soil up to 80 years.

Manganese-54 has a half-life of 312.5 days. It is used to predict the behaviour of heavy metal components in effluents from mining waste water..

Nickel-63 has a half-life of 96 years. It is used in light sensors in cameras and plasma display, in electronic discharge prevention, in electron capture detectors for thickness gauges and to detect explosives.

Polonium-210 has a half life of 138 days. It is used to reduce the static charge in the production of photographic film and other materials.

Promethium-147 has a half life of 2.62 years. It is used in electric blanket thermostats, and to gauge thickness of thin plastics, thin sheet metal, rubber, textile and paper.

Radium-226 has a half life of 1601 years. It was used in luminescent watch dials and is used to increase the efficiency of lightning rods.

Scandium-46 has a half-life of 83.83 days. It is used together in blast furnaces to determine resident times and to quantify yields to measure the furnace performance.

Selenium-75 has a half-life of 119.78 days. It is used in gamma radiography and non-destructive testing.

Silver-110m has a half-life of 249.9 days. It is used in blast furnaces to determine resident times and to quantify yields to measure the furnace performance.

Sodium-24 has a half-life of 15 hours. It is used to locate leaks in industrial pipelines, and in oil well studies.

Sulphur-35 has a half-life of 87.4 days. It is used in survey meters by schools, the military and emergency management authorities. It is also used in cigarette manufacturing sensors and medical treatment.

Strontium-90 has a half-life of 29.12 years. It is used for industrial gauging.

Technetium-99m has a half-life of 6.02 hours. It is used to study sewage and liquid waste movements, as well as tracing factory waste causing ocean pollution, and to trace sand movement in river beds and ocean floors.

Thallium-204 has a half-life of 3.78 years. It is used for industrial gauging.

Thorium-229 has a half-life of 7340 years. It is used to increase the lifespan of fluorescent lights.

Ytterbium-169 has a half-life of 32.01 days. It is used in gamma radiography and non-destructive testing.

Zinc-65 has a half-life of 243.9 days. It is used to predict the behaviour of heavy metal components in effluents from mining waste water.

            Over two hundred radioactive isotopes are manufactured for use in medicine and industry. Radioisotopes can be used to analyze materials, trace flows and treat commodities.

            Both slow neutrons for Thermal Neutron Capture (TNC) and fast neutrons for Neutron Inelastic Scattering (NIS) can be used to stimulate materials and reveal the elements that the sample contains. Lowering a NIS probe into a well can reveal the amount of water in the soil around the bore hole.

            Gamma rays can be used to analyze the ash content of pieces of coal passing on a conveyor belt. This is useful for determining the amount of combustible material in the coal. X-rays can cause materials to fluoresce which reveals the types and amounts of elements present. A stream of mineral slurry can be probed to determine what elements are present.

            A small capsule of radioactive material which emits gamma rays can be placed on one side of an object with a photographic plate or detector on the other side. This “radiographic” procedure is often used to check welds and joints in pipes and other metal objects. X-rays can also be used for radiography but gamma probes are more powerful and more portable.

            Gamma rays can be used to determine the presence, absence, density or quantity of a material without any contact. Thus the flow of materials through a pipe can be easily monitored in processing industries.

            Gamma rays are widely used to sterilize a variety of objects, materials and commodities. Medical equipment, wool, wood, archival documents, food and other things are treated with gamma rays.

            Most physical, chemical and biological systems do not react differently to radioactive or non-radioactive materials. Radioisotopes can be inserted into molecules to replace the non-radioactive version of a particular element. The molecule is then introduced into a system and traced as it moved through. Flows of water and movements of soil can be traced with naturally occurring radioisotopes.

            Small quantities of radioisotopes with short half-lives can be introduced into flows and used to monitor mixing and dilution. Outflows of sewage, industrial mixing, blast furnace mixing and even insect infestation can be traced.

            Naturally occurring radioactivity in ores can be concentrated by processing and may pose an industrial hazard which must be dealt with. Oil and natural gas processing can contaminate large amounts of water. Coal burning concentrates radioactivity in the resulting ash. Pulverizing rocks containing phosphate for fertilizer concentrates natural radioactivity. Cleaning water for human use results in waste products that contain radioactivity. Metal smelting can concentrate radioactive materials in the ores. Particle acceletators used for physics research generate radioactivity that must be disposed of when an accelerator is decommissioned. Some radiation sources used in research in commercial laboratories and universities have a long half-life and pose a disposal.

            Both natural and man-made radioactive materials are widely used in our advanced technological culture. Their production, handling and disposal require careful monitoring.

            The critical component in a Geiger counter is the Geiger-Müller tube. It is a gas metal or conductive material lined tube that registers a voltage spike when a radioactive particle penetrates the tube and ionizes the gas inside. There are many companies that sell kits for the electronics of a Geiger counter. However, they leave it to the builder to purchase the Geiger-Muller tube separately. Geiger-Muller tubes come in a wide variety of designs at different prices. Aside from usual considerations of quality of materials, quality and precision of construction, different designs offer different levels of sensitivity for detecting radioactivity. High voltage power supplies, amplification circuits, and some sort of sound, flashing light, digital display or meter must be added to make a complete functional Geiger counter. Here is a list of sources for Geiger-Müller tubes.

            Anything Radioactive is an English company that has a variety of Geiger-Müller tubes for sale. There are tubes from Russia, China and the USA. They are made of glass or metal and have different types of connectors. The working voltages are around 400 volts or 800 volts. They are primarily intended for the detection of gamma and beta radiation. The price range is from $55 to $110.

            Surplus Sales of Nebraska has high quality used Geiger-Müller for sale. They are very sensitive but the price is $395.

            Alrad is another British company that sells Geiger-Müller tubes manufactured by Centronic. Centronic has been manufacturing Geiger-Müller tubes since the Fifties and high quality tubes. Their gamma, beta and alpha detecting tubes use mica windows.

            Saint-Gobain Crystals designs, manufacture and sells high quality rugged Geiger-Müller that can function in high temperatures.

            Alibaba.com is a website that lists global manufacturers of Geiger-Müller tubes. This web page lists both Geiger counters and Geiger-Müller tubes. There are eight Geiger-Müller tubes listed. The listings contain the name of the manufacturers and contact information. Most of these tubes are made in mainland China.

            eBay currently has nineteen listings for Geiger- Müller tubes. They come from a variety of sources. Some of these tubes are used and some are new. You can either bid on these tubes or you can buy them immediately for prices ranging from $7 to $114. As with any purchase from eBay, it would be wise to research the particulate type of tube and the vendor offering it before making a decision whether or not to buy.

            These are only a few of the available sources for Geiger- Müller tubes. If you are not knowledgeable about radiation and you don’t have skills in assembling electronics, you should probably purchase a commercial Geiger counter that meets your requirements and price range. On the other hand, if you have sufficient knowledge and skills, you can build or even design your own Geiger counter.

Inexpensive Geiger counters can be purchased for around $200. If you would rather build your own Geiger counter, there are a number of sources for instruction and kits.

            Images Scientific Instruments has a website that offers kits for sale to build digital Geiger counters, PC based Geiger counters, analog meter Geiger counter and analog Geiger counters. Starting with the simplest models that indicate emitted radioactive particles by clicking sounds and blinking LED and moving through digital displays and meters to free PC programs, there is a range of instruments at a range of prices.

            There is a website that promotes a Geiger counter project called Mr. Fission. The counter indicates emitted radioactive particles by audible clicks, digital numerical display and LCD bar chart display. The site discusses how a hardware hacker built his own Geiger counter from scratch. He is working on a kit that people will be able to buy to build their own. He hopes to be able to use readily available parts that will cost under $20. The Geiger-Müller tube will have to be purchased separately.

            Galactic Electronics has a Geiger counter project webpage. The counter indicates emitted radioactive particles by audible clicks. They list the common electronic parts that are needed, provide a schematic of the electronic circuit and give detailed instructions. They suggest going to the surplus market to get the Geiger-Müller tube to keep the cost down.

            Russell E. Clift has posted a webpage for a Bargraph Geiger Counter project. It displays radiation events in a bar graph format as suggested by the name. He provides details of how the counter operates, has a circuit diagram that can be expanded into a larger picture, lists all the parts needed and gives detailed instructions on how to build his counter .. He also includes a section on testing and calibration. Kits for the counter can be purchased from Allegro Electronic Systems.

            Anything Radioactive is a English website sells a lot of different Geiger Counters including a watch that registers gamma radiation. They have a DIY kit from Japan called the Air Geiger Counter. It shows radioactive events on an LCD display. One interesting thing about this kit is that they show you how to construct the Geiger-Muller tube itself which is the heart of a Geiger counter. All the materials and parts are common and readily available.  There is free software available for use on a PC with the completed kit. This company also sells Geiger-Müller tubes which could be used with some of the other projects listed in this post.

Kits USA has the C-6979 Sensitive Geiger Counter Kit for sale. It uses a Russian Geiger-Müller tube. It senses gamma and beta radiation and responds with clicks and flashes of an LED. They provide all parts including the tube and full instructions.

            All of these kits assume that you are able to follow instructions for constructing electronic devices and that you are able to solder components onto a circuit board correctly.

Images Scientific Instruments GCK -O1 circuit board:

 

The following list covers radioisotopes created in nuclear reactors by neutron flux for nuclear medicine.

Bismuth-213 has a half life of 46 minutes. It is used for Targeted Alpha Therapy.

Chromium-51 has a half life of 28 days. It is used to label red blood cells and quantify gastro-intestinal protein loss.

Cobalt-60 has a half life of 10.5 months. It is used for external beam radiotherapy.

Copper-64 has a half life of 13 hours. It is used to study genetic diseases affecting copper metabolism.

Dysprosium-165 has a half life of 2 hours. It is used as an aggregated hydroxide for synovectomy treatment of arthritis.

Erbium-169 has a half life of 9.4 days. It is used for relieving arthritis pain in synovial joints.

Holmium-166 has a half life of 26 hours. It is used for diagnosis and treatment of liver tumors.

Iodine-125 has a half life of 60 days. It is used in cancer therapy where a radioactive pellet is implanted in the prostate gland or the brain. It is also used diagnostically to evaluate the filtration rate of kidneys and to diagnose deep vein thrombosis in the leg. It is can also be used to detect tiny amounts of hormones.

Iodine-131 has a half life of 8 days. It is used in treating thyroid cancer and in imaging the thyroid. It is also used in diagnosis of abnormal liver function, kidney blood flow and urinary tract obstruction.

Iridium-192 has a half life of 74 days. It is used in the form of a wire for internal implantation for cancer treatment.

Iron-59 has a half life of 46 days. It is used in studies of iron metabolism in the spleen.

Lutetium-177 has a half life of 6.7 days. It is used in therapy on small tumors found in endocrine glands.

Molybdenum-99 has a half life of 66 hours. It is used to produce technetium-99m.

Palladium-103 has a half life of 17 days. It is used to make permanent implant seeds for early stage prostate cancer treatment.

Phosphorus-32 has a half life of 14 days. It is used in the treatment of a condition involving excess red blood cells.

Potassium-42 has a half life of 12 hours. It is used for the evaluation of exchangeable potassium in coronary blood flow.

Rhenium-186 has a half life of 3.8 days. It is used for pain relief in bone cancer.

Rhenium-188 has a half life of 17 hours. It is used to irradiate coronary arteries from an angioplasty balloon.

Samarium-153 has a half life of 47 hours. It is used to relieve the pain of secondary cancers in the bones. It is also effective for pain caused by prostate and breast cancer.

Selenium-75 has a half life of 120 days. It is used to study the production of digestive enzymes.

Sodium-24 has a half life of 15 hour. It is used for studies of electrolytes in the body.

Strontium-89 has a half life of 50 days. It is used to reduce the pain of prostate and bone cancer.

Technetium-99m has a half life of 6 hours. It is used in to image the skeleton, heart muscles, brain, thyroid, lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys gall bladder, bone marrow, salivary and tear glands.

Xenon-133 has a half life of 5 days. It is used for lung ventilation studies.

Ytterbium-169 has a half life of 32 days. It is used for cerebrospinal fluid studies in the brain.

Yttrium-90 has a half life of 64 hours. It is used for cancer therapy by implantation in large joints for the relief of the pain of arthritis. 

 

The image below shows a catheter inserting a radioactive wire into a tumor.