Iran is an ancient country known for most of its history as Persia. It has existed in one form or another for thousands of years. The original Zoroastrian religion was replaced  by Islam when Iran was conquered in 651 AD. The Iranians are predominantly members of the Shiite branch of Islam.

          Iran occupies a strategic location in the Middle of Asia bordering Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Turkey and other countries as well as the Persian Gulf. It over six hundred thousand square miles in size and has a population of seventy five million. With huge reserves of oil and natural gas, it is a main supplier of fossil fuels to Europe and Asia.

          Anger over loss of territory to Western powers and granting of concessions to foreign countries spurred the Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1906 to over throw the Shah and create a parliament. The ruling Qatar dynasty was overthrown by Reza Khan in 1925. He then instituted a number of reforms to modernize Iran. In 1941, the United States and Britain made him abdicate the throne in favor of his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi because Khan had close ties with Germany. In 1951 after that assignation of Prime Minister Ali Razmara, Dr. Mohammad Mosaddegh was elected Prime Minister by a Parliamentary vote which was ratified by Shah Pahlavi. Mosaddegh was enormously popular after he nationalized the Iranian oil industry and oil reserves. This angered the British who instituted an Iranian oil embargo. The British involved the U.S. in a plot to remove Mosaddegh. In 1953, he was arrested and removed from office. The U.S. began cooperating with Iran in the development of nuclear reactors for power generation as part of the Atoms for Peace program.

          Following the coup that removed Mosaddegh, the Shah gathered more and more power to himself. A powerful cleric named Ruholla Khomeini became a vocal critic of the Shah. He was arrested, imprisoned and eventually exiled. Eventually living in France, Khomeini kept in touch with revolutionary forces in Iran through audio tapes of his sermons and personal representatives. The Iranian people rose up against the Shah in 1978 and forced him to flee in 1979. Khomeini returned from exile to head the theocratic revolutionary government that came to rule Iran. U.S. and Iranian relations soured during 1979 and in November of the year, the U.S. Embassy in Tehran was seized and the staff taken prisoner by a group of students. Fifty two of the embassy personnel were held for 444 days and released after the election of Ronald Reagan to the U. S. Presidency in 1980. U.S. assistance in nuclear research and development in Iran ended with the taking of the hostages. Khomeini disbanded a secret nuclear weapons research program because he objected to nuclear weapons on religious grounds.

        Taking advantage of the disarray in the Iranian military, Saddam Hussein in Iraq attacked Iran. A horrible war raged for eight years during which time there were many casualties on both sides. Iraq was encouraged and assisted by the United States. Because of the bad relations between the U.S and Iran, the U.S. felt that the war between Iraq and Iran would seriously weaken Iran and prevent it from being a strong regional power hostile to the U.S. The war ended in 1988. After the death of Khomeini, nuclear weapons research was expanded in Iran. Iran’s first nuclear power plant was completed with assistance from the Russians in 2011. Iran has uranium mines and is known to have three uranium enrichment plants. Iran has said that it will continue to build reactors for power and develop more uranium mines.

         The International community is very worried that Iran is working on the creation of nuclear weapons. They have the technology and a number of facilities have been built underground to protect them from possible bombing. They also have a robust missile program that would allow them to send warheads to Europe, Asia, Russia, Africa and all of the Middle East. Iran claims that it is not pursuing nuclear weapons but refuses to all full inspection of all of its nuclear research facilities. Estimates of when Iran might have a working nuclear bomb vary from months to years.

         The leaders of Iran have made some very hostile and provocative statements towards Israel. Some Israeli leaders have responded by advocating attacks on Iranian nuclear facilities with the assistance of the United States. The situation is very fluid and there are fears that Israel may decide to strike Iran without any outside help.

Arak IR-40 nuclear reactor in Iran – Nanking2012:

 

              Israel was founded as a Jewish state in 1948 when the British partitioned lands that it controlled in the Middle East following World War II. There had been tension between the Jews and the Muslims in that area for centuries. Following the creation of a Jewish state, open war broke out between Israel and its Muslim neighbors. The first Israeli Prime Minister was obsessed with nuclear weapons. He instituted projects and recruited scientists to explore creation of an Israeli nuclear weapons program. In 1952, the Israel Atomic Energy Commission was created.

              Israel established a close relationship with France in the 1950s and the two nations shared research and resources for the development of nuclear weapons. With French secret support, Israel began building a nuclear reactor and a reprocessing plant in the late 1950s. In 1955, Israel signed an agreement for construction of a U.S. reactor as part of the United States Atoms for Peace program. The Israelis used the construction of the US supported reactor as a cover for the construction of a much large reactor in the Negev Desert near Dimona with French help in 1958 The new French assisted reactor was capable of generating about fifty pounds of plutonium per year but the Israelis and the French claimed that it was for strictly peaceful purposes.

              The Israelis acknowledge the existence of the nuclear complex at Dimona but refuse to discuss whether or not they have manufactured nuclear weapons there. The Reactors became operational and capable of producing plutonium around 1964. When the United States became aware of the activities at Dimona in the mid 1960s, they demanded that Israel allow international inspection of the site. Israel agreed on the condition that the United States carry out the inspections. With advanced notice of the inspections, it was thought that the Israelis had time to hide any evidence of nuclear weapons production and the inspections were declared useless and halted in 1969. The United States concluded at that time that Israel did possess nuclear weapons.

             In 1986, a former technician at Dimona named Mordechai Vanunu fled to the United Kingdom and made public information about Israel’s nuclear program. It was determined at the time that Israel had enough material for twenty hydrogen bombs and two hundred fission bombs. Vanunu was eventually kidnapped by Israeli agents, returned to Israel, tried, convicted and held in prison for fourteen years.

           There have been protests and serious debates in Israel over the nuclear weapons program. Israel has never admitted that it has nuclear weapons and has publicly declared that it would not be the first nation to introduce nuclear weapons into the Middle East. The exact meaning of this public announcement has been hotly debated. Israel has planes, missiles and submarines which are thought to be capable of delivering nuclear warheads.

Israeli nuclear complex at Dimona:

           Following the Korean War, the treaty ending the war on July 27, 1953 contained a clause that said that neither North Korea or South Korean would introduce new types of weapons to the peninsula. This was generally understood to mean nuclear weapons. In 1956, the U.S. military decided to deploy nuclear missiles in South Korea and announced that it would no longer be bound by that provision of the treaty that ended the war. Despite condemnation by some members of the UN, in 1958, Honest John nuclear missiles and 280mm atomic cannons were sent to South Korea by the US. In 1959, nuclear tipped Matador cruise missiles were also deployed. These missiles could reach China and Russia which upset these communist nations.

           North Korea responded by digging massive underground bases and stationing their troops close to the border with South Korea so that any nuclear strike would endanger the South Korean and American troops as well. After the Cuban Missile Crisis between the Soviet Union and the United States in late 1962, the North Koreans no longer trusted the Soviet Union to honor its treaty obligations with North Korea if it was attacked by the South and the U.S. In 1963, North Korea asked the Soviet Union for help in developing nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union refused but did offer to help North Korea create a peaceful nuclear energy program. They completed North Korea’s first reactor in 1967. No other nuclear countries would share weapons technology with North Korea because they feared that North Korea would share such information with China.

          Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, North Korea sought a nonaggression pact with the United States. The United States refused to bilateral negotiations and demanded talks include Red China, Japan, Russia and South Korea. North Korea refused such six way talk. In 1994, an agreement was struck between North Korea and the United States for commercial reactors to generate electricity but they were never built. During the next decade, North Korea alternately cooperated and refused to cooperate with United Nation inspections of their nuclear facilities. They spent some periods of noncooperation producing plutonium. In 2000, a Swiss company signed a contract to build two nuclear reactors in North Korea. In 2004, a U.S. official visited North Korea and confirmed that plutonium reprocessing was being directed to the production of weapons grade plutonium.

         In 2006, North Korea announced that it had conducted a nuclear test. Both U.S. and Japanese seismologists detected an earthquake centered in North Korea that seemed to corroborate the North Korean announcement. In 2009, North Korea conducted a second nuclear test of a small bomb at the same location as the 2006 test. Around the same time, North Korea also tested two short range missiles.

         In 2011, A.Q. Khan, the man who stole nuclear secrets to help advance the Pakistani nuclear program claimed that he had personally transferred Pakistani nuclear technology to North Korea during the late 1990s. He claimed that the North Koreans had bribed senior Pakistani military officials to gain access to the nuclear secrets. The Pakistani government official denied the charges.

          Currently, North Korea has a variety of shot and long range missiles, with the longest range missiles being able to reach six thousand miles. It is estimated that North Korea may have as many as forty atomic bombs which could be fitted to their missiles as warheads.

North Korean Missiles (from Deutsche Welle):

           Pakistan came into existence as an independent country in 1947 when the British Indian Empire was partitioned between Hindus and Muslims. The United States brought its “U.S. Atoms for Peace initiatives to Pakistan in 1953 and Pakistan’s Foreign Minister said that Pakistan did not have a policy about atomic bombs. Part of the U.S. initiative was a nuclear reactor for Pakistan. Pakistan established the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission in 1956.

            From 1956 to 1971, Pakistan pursued the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Pakistan knew that India was working on nuclear weapons but felt that the existence of even a peaceful nuclear program in Pakistan was a serious deterrent.

            Following the 1965 war between Pakistan and India which was largely fought in and over the disputed territory of Kashmir, Pakistan began to rethink its nuclear stance. Debate over the costs and complexities of a nuclear weapons program occupied the Pakistani government. In 1966 work began on a commercial Canadian reactor in Karachi. In 1969, Pakistan signed an agreement with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Agency for construction of a plant capable of producing weapons grade plutonium.

            After the loss of Bangladesh and other territories in the war with India in 1971, Pakistan found itself without much international support and much less international influence and respect. The situation after the war and concern over the Indian nuclear program prompted Prime Minister Bhutto of Pakistan to convene a meeting of Pakistani scientists and engineers in 1972 to discuss the establishment of a Pakistani nuclear weapons program. Government agencies and projects were created to pursue nuclear research. The explosion of the first Indian bomb in 1974 accelerated the Pakistani program and triggered the launch of plutonium extraction and purification. Development was begun on the other components necessary to create a nuclear bomb. More physicists and engineers were recruited including Abdul Qadeer Khan who joined the Pakistani nuclear research program in 1976.

           A.Q Khan is a metallurgical engineer who was trained in Germany. He held a high level position with URENCO at their facility in the Netherlands. URENCO is an international nuclear fuel company which operates several uranium enrichment plants in different countries. In 1983, Khan was convicted in abstentia in the Netherlands with stealing blueprints for uranium enrichment from URENCO. He operated an international network to acquire classified information on nuclear weapons development from other countries.

           The Pakistani nuclear weapons program proceeded during the 1980s and 1990s. Five nuclear devices were detonated underground in 1998 in the Chagai district of Balochistan. The international community condemned the tests. India was also condemned from nuclear weapons development. Economic sanctions were imposed on Pakistan but the U.S. lifted its sanctions in 2000 when Pakistan agreed to help the U.S. in its “war on terror.” Pakistan currently has about one hundred nuclear warheads and missiles that have a range of over one thousand miles. The most likely opponent for a nuclear exchange with Pakistan is India. However, if either Pakistan or India bombed the other country, the winds in the area would spread the fallout  back on the attacker. It has been estimated that a limited nuclear war of a few hundred warheads such as possessed by Pakistan and India could trigger a nuclear winter that would impact the entire human race.

Pakistani Missile:

           Pakistan came into existence as an independent country in 1947 when the British Indian Empire was partitioned between Hindus and Muslims. The United States brought its “U.S. Atoms for Peace initiatives to Pakistan in 1953 and Pakistan’s Foreign Minister said that Pakistan did not have a policy about atomic bombs. Part of the U.S. initiative was a nuclear reactor for Pakistan. Pakistan established the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission in 1956.

            From 1956 to 1971, Pakistan pursued the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Pakistan knew that India was working on nuclear weapons but felt that the existence of even a peaceful nuclear program in Pakistan was a serious deterrent.

            Following the 1965 war between Pakistan and India which was largely fought in and over the disputed territory of Kashmir, Pakistan began to rethink its nuclear stance. Debate over the costs and complexities of a nuclear weapons program occupied the Pakistani government. In 1966 work began on a commercial Canadian reactor in Karachi. In 1969, Pakistan signed an agreement with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Agency for construction of a plant capable of producing weapons grade plutonium.

            After the loss of Bangladesh and other territories in the war with India in 1971, Pakistan found itself without much international support and much less international influence and respect. The situation after the war and concern over the Indian nuclear program prompted Prime Minister Bhutto of Pakistan to convene a meeting of Pakistani scientists and engineers in 1972 to discuss the establishment of a Pakistani nuclear weapons program. Government agencies and projects were created to pursue nuclear research. The explosion of the first Indian bomb in 1974 accelerated the Pakistani program and triggered the launch of plutonium extraction and purification. Development was begun on the other components necessary to create a nuclear bomb. More physicists and engineers were recruited including Abdul Qadeer Khan who joined the Pakistani nuclear research program in 1976.

           A.Q Khan is a metallurgical engineer who was trained in Germany. He held a high level position with URENCO at their facility in the Netherlands. URENCO is an international nuclear fuel company which operates several uranium enrichment plants in different countries. In 1983, Khan was convicted in abstentia in the Netherlands with stealing blueprints for uranium enrichment from URENCO. He operated an international network to acquire classified information on nuclear weapons development from other countries.

           The Pakistani nuclear weapons program proceeded during the 1980s and 1990s. Five nuclear devices were detonated underground in 1998 in the Chagai district of Balochistan. The international community condemned the tests. India was also condemned from nuclear weapons development. Economic sanctions were imposed on Pakistan but the U.S. lifted its sanctions in 2000 when Pakistan agreed to help the U.S. in its “war on terror.” Pakistan currently has about one hundred nuclear warheads and missiles that have a range of over one thousand miles. The most likely opponent for a nuclear exchange with Pakistan is India. However, if either Pakistan or India bombed the other country, the winds in the area would spread the fallout  back on the attacker. It has been estimated that a limited nuclear war of a few hundred warheads such as possessed by Pakistan and India could trigger a nuclear winter that would impact the entire human race.

Pakistani Missile:

           Pakistan came into existence as an independent country in 1947 when the British Indian Empire was partitioned between Hindus and Muslims. The United States brought its “U.S. Atoms for Peace initiatives to Pakistan in 1953 and Pakistan’s Foreign Minister said that Pakistan did not have a policy about atomic bombs. Part of the U.S. initiative was a nuclear reactor for Pakistan. Pakistan established the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission in 1956.

            From 1956 to 1971, Pakistan pursued the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Pakistan knew that India was working on nuclear weapons but felt that the existence of even a peaceful nuclear program in Pakistan was a serious deterrent.

            Following the 1965 war between Pakistan and India which was largely fought in and over the disputed territory of Kashmir, Pakistan began to rethink its nuclear stance. Debate over the costs and complexities of a nuclear weapons program occupied the Pakistani government. In 1966 work began on a commercial Canadian reactor in Karachi. In 1969, Pakistan signed an agreement with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Agency for construction of a plant capable of producing weapons grade plutonium.

            After the loss of Bangladesh and other territories in the war with India in 1971, Pakistan found itself without much international support and much less international influence and respect. The situation after the war and concern over the Indian nuclear program prompted Prime Minister Bhutto of Pakistan to convene a meeting of Pakistani scientists and engineers in 1972 to discuss the establishment of a Pakistani nuclear weapons program. Government agencies and projects were created to pursue nuclear research. The explosion of the first Indian bomb in 1974 accelerated the Pakistani program and triggered the launch of plutonium extraction and purification. Development was begun on the other components necessary to create a nuclear bomb. More physicists and engineers were recruited including Abdul Qadeer Khan who joined the Pakistani nuclear research program in 1976.

           A.Q Khan is a metallurgical engineer who was trained in Germany. He held a high level position with URENCO at their facility in the Netherlands. URENCO is an international nuclear fuel company which operates several uranium enrichment plants in different countries. In 1983, Khan was convicted in abstentia in the Netherlands with stealing blueprints for uranium enrichment from URENCO. He operated an international network to acquire classified information on nuclear weapons development from other countries.

           The Pakistani nuclear weapons program proceeded during the 1980s and 1990s. Five nuclear devices were detonated underground in 1998 in the Chagai district of Balochistan. The international community condemned the tests. India was also condemned from nuclear weapons development. Economic sanctions were imposed on Pakistan but the U.S. lifted its sanctions in 2000 when Pakistan agreed to help the U.S. in its “war on terror.” Pakistan currently has about one hundred nuclear warheads and missiles that have a range of over one thousand miles. The most likely opponent for a nuclear exchange with Pakistan is India. However, if either Pakistan or India bombed the other country, the winds in the area would spread the fallout  back on the attacker. It has been estimated that a limited nuclear war of a few hundred warheads such as possessed by Pakistan and India could trigger a nuclear winter that would impact the entire human race.

Pakistani Missile:

           In 1947, shortly after World War II, the British partitioned their colony of India into the new Hindu nation of India and the new Muslim nation of Pakistan. The largest migration in human history followed as Muslims moved west into Pakistan and Hindus moved east into India. Kashmir was controlled by India although the majority of their citizens were Muslim. Since the partition, India and Pakistan have argued over Kashmir and occasionally fought wars. India has also had strained relations with bordering China over some border areas.

           India was not an independent nation when the United Nations was created. The major international players at the time who were on the winning side were given seats on the Security Council. Eventually all of them developed nuclear weapons. Being such a huge nation, India felt that it should be given more respect in the international community and the United Nations. Eventually, leaders in India decided that having nuclear weapons would cause the international community to give India the respect that it deserved. In addition, given their persistent regional disputes and conflicts, it was not surprising that India began to pursue nuclear weapons development.

           Although India was a democratic nation, from the beginning, the Indian nuclear weapons development program was authorized and guided by a few powerful people in the Indian government. India established a nuclear research program before the end of World War II and before it achieved independence. The Indian Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1948, a year before independence. Although it was claimed that the Commission was to oversee the peaceful use of atomic energy, the possibility of weapons development was left open.

            In 1954, India began work on nuclear weapons at a new facility that grew rapidly between 1954 and 1959. The weapons program eventually consumed a third of India’s research and development budget and employed over a thousand people. India’s first nuclear reactor was constructed in 1955. The United States, the United Kingdom and Canada supplied reactor components, heavy water and uranium fuel for India to have a powerful sophisticated reactor. known as CIRUS. Although the intention of the international community was for the reactor to be used for the peaceful generation of electrical power, it was ideal for the production of plutonium. No regulations or inspections were imposed and India soon turned the reactor to the production of plutonium for nuclear weapons. India proceeded to design and build her own reactor based on the CIRUS design. She also produced her own uranium fuel and created breeder reactors for fuel production. A plutonium extraction facility began operation in 1964.

           Tensions increased between India and China in the late 1950s and in October of 1962, China attacked India over a disputed border region. The Soviet Union had supported India in the past but sided with China this time. India appealed to the US but before the U.S. could deploy, China withdrew after easily defeating the Indian military.

           The conflict with China and the knowledge that China was working on nuclear weapons spurred India to accelerate her own nuclear weapons development. A plutonium extraction plant was built and started operations in 1964.China exploded its first atomic bomb in 1964 and Indian politicians called for India to quickly develop her own atomic bomb, claiming that it was only for “peaceful” purposes. There were serious conflicts between Indian political factions over nuclear weapons development. In the meantime, Pakistan became concerned with India’s nuclear research. In 1965, Pakistan attacked India. This led to a series of attacks and counter attacks mainly in the Kashmir region. The war ended in 1966. India was more resolved than ever to develop nuclear weapons. Work continued in the nuclear program but there were problems with the reactors and plutonium extraction facility. It took until 1969 for India to have enough plutonium for a bomb. Another war with Pakistan 1971 encouraged India to tested her first nuclear bomb and the test took place in 1974.

           Following the detonation of the first Indian bomb, support for India’s nuclear program in India and in the international community collapsed.  The Indian nuclear program slowed down as international sanctions impacted their reactors. During the next decade some progress was made but the program picked up steam again in the early 1980s with the start of a ballistic missile program for both short and long range missiles. The Indians also began working on the miniaturization necessary to put an atomic bomb in a warhead that would fit in a missile. In the 1990s, both India and Pakistan worked on the development and deployment of nuclear weapons. India has missiles, bombers, surface ships which can deliver nuclear bombs and is working on submarines. India is estimated to have around one hundred nuclear warheads.

 

India Agni-II missile http://img.radiobras.gov.br/Aberto/index.php/Imagens.Principal.120.0.2004-01-31

 

          The Curie family carried out some of the original research on radioactive materials in the first decades of the Twentieth Century. By the time of World War II, French research into nuclear energy was well advanced. French scientists kept General de Gaulle informed of American nuclear research and the possibility of nuclear weapons. Following the atomic bombing of Japan and the end of the War, de Gaulle  started the French Atomic Energy Commissariat. In the aftermath of the War and the reconstruction of France following German occupation, the United States discourage nuclear weapons research and France fell behind other countries that were pursuing nuclear weapons.

          The first French nuclear reactor went achieved a critical reaction in 1948 and small amounts of plutonium were extracted in 1949. In the early 1950s, a plan for the development of nuclear energy was drafted for the French government. The plan included the creation of one hundred and ten pounds of plutonium per year which would be enough for seven bombs per year. A secret committee was created to liason between the Commissariat and the military. In 1956, one program was set up to create delivery vehicles for nuclear bombs and another was set up to create strategic nuclear bombs. In 1958, de Gaulle set the date for the first French nuclear test and accelerated the French nuclear program. The French developed their delivery systems starting with strategic bombers and moving on to missiles and, eventually, missile firing submarines.

          The first French atomic bomb test took place in 1960 at the Reganne Oasis in the Algerian Sahara desert and were atmospheric. After a few more tests at that location, testing moved underground to another Algerian site called In Ecker. During the Algerian tests, soldiers were told to advance on foot and in vehicles to within a few hundred meters of the epicenter of one of the blasts less than an hour after the bomb was detonated in order to test the effect of radiation on the troops. A survey in 2008 found that one third of the survivors of the radiation test had some form of cancer and one fifth were infertile. The environment suffered from the direct effects of the blasts and the radioactive fallout.

The the French nuclear tests moved to French Polynesian atolls in the South Pacific where their first thermonuclear atmospheric test was detonated in 1968. They continued both atmospheric and underground testing at the atolls until the mid 1990s. Environmental surveys show elevated levels of radiation with plutonium from the tests in the sediment around the atolls and high levels of tritium which leaked from underground tests.

In 1996, all of the French land-based missile silos were deactivated and dismantled. They still maintain a squadron of nuclear bombers. They have aircraft carriers which can carry planes that can deliver nuclear bombs. With a fleet of four nuclear armed submarines, the French keep at least two of the submarines at sea at all times. The French arsenal of nuclear warheads is estimated to be about three hundred.

            In 2009, the French Senate passed a bill that admitted the adverse impacts that its nuclear testing program had had on the natural environment and the people near the test sites. They provided a compensation scheme for civilian and military veterans.

French nuclear submarine:

           During World War II, two exiled German physicists wrote a paper about the possibility of constructing a “radioactive super-bomb” which was sent to appropriate agencies of the United Kingdom government. A committee was set up to explore building such a bomb and a research program was begun. Eventually, the U.K. entered into partnership with the United States and Canada in the Manhattan Project. The Project was successful and two of the new atomic bombs were dropped on Japan, ending World War II in the Pacific in 1945.

           Following the war, the British continued with their own research on nuclear weapons. The first order of business was to secure plutonium for bomb production. In 1946, two reactors were built at an old ordinance factory at Sellafield in northwest England. The reactors were fueled with uranium, moderated with graphite rods and air-cooled. Facilities were built to extract plutonium from the spent fuel removed from the reactors. Reactor 1 was started in 1950 and reactor 2 was started in 1951. By 1952, sufficient plutonium was available to build a bomb. The United Kingdom exploded their first atomic bomb in October of 1952 on an island off the coast of Western Australia.  They continued research and testing and in 1957 began a series of test of hydrogen bombs on islands in the Central Pacific.

           In 1958, the United States and the United Kingdom signed the Mutual Defense Agreement. Part of the Agreement covered the sharing of information and mutual assistance in the further development of nuclear weapons as well as cooperation on all nuclear security matters.

            In 1960, the U.K. cancelled its last nuclear weapon delivery system project and has collaborated with the U.S. on weapon delivery systems ever since. Lockheed Martin designs and manufactures delivery systems and then they are fitted with nuclear warhead designed and built in the U.K.

            The U.K. has not carried out the number of tests of other nuclear powers such as the U.S., the Soviet Union and Red China. However, because of their special relationship to the U.S. and access to classified U.S. nuclear weapons research, they have been able to develop sophisticated nuclear warhead with much less effort than the other nuclear powers.

             There has been political turbulence in the United Kingdom over the manufacture of nuclear weapons and policies for their uses. For a long time, the actual costs and risks of the weapons programs were kept secret from the citizens of the United Kingdom.

             The U.K. has constantly kept at least one ballistic-missile submarine on patrol since 1969. They purchased Polaris missiles from the U.S. to arm the submarines. Eventually, the Polaris missiles were replaced by U.S. Trident missiles in the mid 1990s.They currently have four Vanguard submarines that provide their deterrence against a pre-emptive first strike attack by an enemy. Their stockpile of warheads is estimated to be around one hundred and fifty.

Photo of Sellafield from the air – www.visitcumbria.com:

            After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union entered into a race to develop nuclear weapons. By the mid 50s, both nations had developed powerful hydrogen bombs. Constant ongoing research, development and testing resulted in the creation of tens of thousands of hydrogen bombs by both sides.

             Intercontinental ballistic missiles were created that could carry multi-megaton warhead to anywhere on earth. In the United States, silos were dug to house the missiles and their support personnel. In the Soviet Union, missiles were placed on trucks and constantly moved around to conceal their locations. The Interstate Highway System that was build during the 50s in the United States was originally conceived as a system of roads for shuffling around U.S. missiles.

            Squadrons of bombers were built and maintained to carry the hydrogen bombs. Airbases were constructed to house and maintain the bombers. At times, groups of bombers were rotated so there would always some in the air at any moment in case of a surprise attack.

             Fleets of submarines were created and equipped with nuclear missiles. Naval bases were built to construct and service the subs. Nuclear engines were developed so the subs could patrol for extended periods of time with the need to return to base for refueling.

             Advanced radar systems were deployed to detect missile launches by either country. With the speed of the missiles, there would only be minutes warn of incoming missiles. The world teetered on the brink of almost instant annihilation for decades. There were a number of close calls as false alarms were triggered.

            The United States and the Soviet Union were capable of destroying each other in hours with all these nuclear weapons so they found themselves in a stalemate situation. This was called “mutually assured destruction” or MAD. Drills were carried out in schools and businesses during the 50s and everyone lived with the fear of a devastating nuclear war.

            Since the U.S. and Soviet Union could not attack each other directly, they worked through proxies all over the world, fomenting rebellions in and wars between client governments. The term the evolved for this was the “Cold War”. We had allies in Europe and Asia and the Soviet Union had Communist Cuba in the Caribbean.

            In 1963, the Soviet Union began constructing bases for nuclear missiles in Cuba. They decided that if the United States could have nuclear weapons stationed in Europe, then they could station missiles near our borders. U.S. President Kennedy decided otherwise and told them that we would go to war if they brought the missiles to Cuba. Soviet ships carrying the missiles were heading for Cuba. The U.S. Navy set up a blockade. One of the Soviet ships strayed over the red line that the U.S. had told them not to cross. The captain of the nearby U.S. Naval vessel had to decide whether or not to take the world to a war that both sides could lose. He thought that the Soviet vessel might have had navigation problems so he waited and eventually the Soviet vessel turned around and left the prohibited zone. The fate of the entire human race rested on the shoulders of that one man who later said that he just could not bring himself to trigger World War III.

            When the Soviet Union fell in 1991, the Cold War ended. The long nightmare of a nuclear third world war was over and the world could move out of the shadow of destruction. One positive benefit of the Cold War was the creation of a computer network by the U.S. military that was decentralized and could withstand the devastation of a nuclear war. This network was turned over to civilian control and became the Internet.

Soviet R-12 nuclear ballistic missile: