Scientists have discovered four fundamental forces of nature. These are gravitational, electromagnetic, weak and strong forces. All of these are connected to radiation in some way.

Gravitation

            Gravitation is the least important for our discussion. Gravitation is a force that causes attraction between material objects. Although gravitation influences radiation on a cosmic scale, it is by far the weakest force of nature and is of little importance in our discussion of radiation and its dangers on a human scale.

Electromagnetism

            The next force in terms of strength is the electromagnetic force. Early research on electricity found that there were two types that attracted and cancelled each other which we call positive and negative. Because of a mistake that Ben Franklin made, electrons are said to be positive and protons are said to be negative in charge. It would make a lot more sense to say that electrons had a positive charge but tradition dictates otherwise.

            Electricity and magnetism were thought of as two separate forces but then it was discovered that magnetic fields are a manifestation of moving electrical charges. When electrons in orbit around atomic nuclei change energy levels, they either absorb or emit a packet of electromagnetic energy known as a photon. Photons have a frequency and a wavelength that are inversely related. As the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases. The amount of energy carried by a photon is directly related to the frequency of the photon and increases as the frequency increases. The electromagnetic spectrum extends from a frequency of a million cycles per second with a wavelength of a kilometer up to a frequency of ten followed by eighteen zeros per second and a wavelength of one ten billionths of a meter. Photons travel at one hundred and eighty six thousand miles per second in a vacuum but will move slower when passing though gases, liquids and solids.

            Electromagnetic energy is present in many ways in our lives both naturally and artificially. Natural types of EM radiation include heat, visible light, ultraviolet light and highly energetic gamma rays. Artificial EM radiation includes all sorts of radio communication from AM radio to microwaves, lasers that utilize visible light for many things, ultraviolet light for many uses and X-rays to probe the interior of things. Many of the frequencies of EM radiation have biological effects, some benign and some harmful. Gamma rays are highly energetic photons that are released by radioactive decay and also generated by astrophysical processes which bombard the earth with these packets of energy. This type of EM radiation is harmful to living things.

Weak Force

            The weak force is much weaker than both the electromagnetic and the strong force. This force holds an electron and a proton together to create a neutron. Electric charges come in two polar opposite types referred to a positive and a negative charge. When the weak force holds an electron and a proton together, the resulting particle is called a neutron because the two charge types cancel each other and the neutron is electrically neutral. When a neutron is expelled from a radioactive nucleus in what is called beta decay, it spontaneously splits into an electron and a proton in about 15 minutes. The weak force is also involved in thermonuclear fusion which takes place stars and results in the creation of all the elements in the periodic table from hydrogen atoms.

Strong Force

            Like electrical charges repel each other. The protons in the nucleus of an atom carry a positive charge and so they are pushed apart by their charge. However, the strong force overcomes the repulsive EM force and holds the nucleus together. The strong force is about one hundred times stronger than the EM force at atomic distances. The strong force also binds together the particles called quarks to create protons and neutrons. The nuclear binding energy is a measure of the energy that is holding the nucleus together. Depending on the mass of the nucleus and the number of neutrons, the splitting of some nuclei in nuclear fission results in the release of nuclear binding energy which is the source of the heat used to generate power in a nuclear reactor or destructive force in a nuclear explosion.

 

            In 1958, the European Nuclear Energy Agency (ENEA) was formed as a special agency within the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development with the United States as an associate member. With the entry of Japan in 1972, the name was changed to the Nuclear Energy Agency.

            The mission of the NEA is to “assist its Member countries in maintaining and further developing, through international co-operation, the scientific, technological and legal bases required for the safe, environmentally friendly and economical use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.“

            There are thirty member counties including Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech  Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States.

            The NEA deals with nuclear safety and regulation, nuclear energy development, radioactive waste management, radiation protection and public health, nuclear law and liability, nuclear science, nuclear information and communication. NEA members host about eighty five percent of the nuclear generating capacity of the world. Almost a fourth of the electricity produced in the member nations is generated by nuclear reactors.

            The NEA utilizes a relatively small staff to coordinate technical committees charged with carrying out the seven primary functions of the Agency. The committees are composed of technical experts from the member nations. The committees foster discussions, technical exchanges, cooperative research programs, consensus building and cost reduction in nuclear research. The NEA has made major contributions to nuclear waste disposal and reactor technology development during the past 30 years.

            The NEA just released its strategic plan for 2011-2016. The three main topics or concern are supplying the increasing world demand for energy, insuring the security of the energy supply and minimizing impacts on the environment.  The document emphasizes that the current trends in energy supply and use are unsustainable with increasing demands, reliance on fossil fuels, competition for natural gas and oil deposits, increasing CO₂ levels and severe environmental impacts. The plan calls for increased use of nuclear power because of it releases no CO₂ or other pollutants and it is currently cost competitive with coal, oil and natural gas. The challenge for greater acceptance of nuclear power lie in finding solutions to the long term management of spent nuclear fuel, the safe and permanent disposal of radioactive waste, the security of nuclear materials and facilities and the insurance of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.

            Despite the positive view that the NEA promotes for the greater use of nuclear power, the challenges they list are not just a matter of better government regulation, greater competence and integrity of the private nuclear industry, and greater education of the public.  There are very serious questions about the release of massive amounts of CO₂ during nuclear plant construction, supplies of water for cooling, concerns over available sites and technologies for waste disposal, possibilities of nuclear accidents, cost of recovery from nuclear accidents, increasing cost of uranium, and many other problems that must be solved to make nuclear power safe, efficient and cost effective.

 

 

Radiation Protection advice and tips from the United States EPA

Contains daily radiation readings from Seattle, Washington.

Links that deal with current news about dangerous radiation

Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute

            The JNC was established in 1956 as the Atomic Fuel Corporation (AFC). The AFC became the Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Cooperation (PNC) in 1967. The PNC became the JNC in 1998. The mission of the incarnations of the JNC was involved with researching, developing and monitoring the nuclear fuel cycle in Japan.

Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute

            The JAERI was established in 1956. It’s job was to encourage and oversee research on application of nuclear materials and nuclear energy for Japan.

Japan Atomic Energy Agency

            The Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) was formed in 2005 by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency Act of 2005. It was created by the merger of two existing agencies, the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute (JNC) and the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI).

            The scope of the JAEA mission includes basic and application nuclear research, technical evolution of the nuclear fuel cycle, facility sharing, human resource development for the nuclear industry, collection and dissemination of nuclear information, safety regulation, nuclear disaster prevention and response, environmental monitoring, international non-proliferation, and decommissioning and disposal of nuclear waste.  There are four major divisions of the JAEA including a Management Sector, R&D directorates, R&D Institutes/centers and a Project Promotion Sector.

            The JAEA came under intense scrutiny and criticism for its response (or lack of response) to the Fukushima nuclear disaster. Part of the problem was the clumsy, biased and incompetent job the JAEA did in communicating with the Japanese public during and after the disaster.

Japanese Atomic Energy Commission

            The Japanese Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) was created in 1956. It is the primary nuclear regulatory agency for nuclear energy and materials in Japan. Its mission is to plan, consider and decide on policies for the promotion of research, development and utilization of nuclear energy. The JAEC also advises the government on the organization and budgeting of nuclear agencies in Japan.

Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission

            The Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) was spun off from the Japanese Atomic Energy Commission in 1978. It is included in the Cabinet of the Japanese Prime Minister and is charged with advising the Prime Minister on matters of nuclear safety.

Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency

            The Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) was created in 2001 by the 2001 Central Government Reform. It was established to serve as a Japanese regulatory and oversight branch of the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. As with the US AEC, the NISA has been criticized for being too cozy with the industry that they are supposed to be regulating. There have been charges that the NISA tried to influence public symposia on the use of nuclear energy in Japan.

New nuclear regulatory agency

            As of the end of May, 2012, a new nuclear regulatory agency was in the process of being created by separating the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) from the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry and merging it with the Nuclear Safety Commission to create an agency with less close connection to the Japanese nuclear agency.

            Given the grave consequences of the Fukushima disaster and ongoing dangers of the damaged reactors, we can hope that the reorganization of the Japanese governmental bodies that are charged with nuclear oversight and disaster response in Japan are able to improve their competence and integrity.

 

 

 

            The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established in 1957 as part of the United Nations to “promote safe, secure and peaceful use of nuclear technology” among member nations. World concern was growing in the early 1950s over the discovery of nuclear energy which could be used as a peaceful source of energy or as a terrible weapon. U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower gave his famous “Atoms for Peace” address at the UN in 1953 which inspired the creation of the IAEA.

            According to the mission statement, the “IAEA is :

• is an independent intergovernmental, science and technology-based organization, in the United Nations family, that serves as the global focal point for nuclear cooperation;
• assists its Member States, in the context of social and economic goals, in planning for and using nuclear science and technology for various peaceful purposes, including the generation of electricity, and facilitates the transfer of such technology and knowledge in a sustainable manner to developing Member States;
• develops nuclear safety standards and, based on these standards, promotes the achievement and maintenance of high levels of safety in applications of nuclear energy, as well as the protection of human health and the environment against ionizing radiation;
• verifies through its inspection system that States comply with their commitments, under the Non-Proliferation Treaty and other non-proliferation agreements, to use nuclear material and facilities only for peaceful purposes.”

            The IAEA is the primary intergovernmental nuclear power agency in the world. It has a board of governors and representatives from member states. Conferences are held to determine policies for the organization. The IAEA is composed of the several departments to deal with different aspects of nuclear energy.

            The Department of Nuclear Energy is involved with nuclear power engineering, nuclear power technology development, nuclear power infrastructure, nuclear fuel cycles and waste technology, research reactors, nuclear power planning and economic studies, international nuclear information systems and nuclear knowledge management.

            The Nuclear Safety and Security department is concerned with a nuclear safety and security framework, safety and security technical issues, services for member states, publications, standards and guidelines, conventions and codes, conferences, and training and special projects.

            The Nuclear Sciences and Applications department deals with nuclear issues involving  food and agriculture, human health, cancer therapies, the environment, water resources, radioisotope production and radiation technology and nuclear science in general.

            The Safeguards department was established to provide a nuclear safeguards legal framework including legal treaties and agreements, resources for states, publications including texts of safeguard agreements and protocols, status updates on agreements and protocols, analysis tools, and a forum for discussion of related topics.

            The Technical Cooperation department covers nuclear technical cooperation history, policy context, relationships with the United Nations, programs, frameworks for cooperation, regional breakdown of cooperation, publications and online tools for the technical cooperation community.

            In addition to these departments, the IAEA also provides a new center with top stories and features related to nuclear issues, press releases, multimedia presentations and the IAEA bulletin. An archive of documents includes annual reports, information circulars, treaties and conventions, standards and guidelines, legal agreements and protocols for safeguards.

            After the Fukushima nuclear accident, the IAEA’s response was criticized as being “sluggish and confusing.” Nuclear experts state that the IAEA has a complicated mandate and is constrained by its member states who do not have to follow IAEA safety standards. These problems will make reforms difficult. Calls have been made to change the mandate of the IAEA to make so it can do a better job of policing nuclear power plants across the globe.

 

            In 1974 the Energy Reorganization Act broke up the Atomic Energy Commission and established the Energy Research and Development Administration to promote civilian nuclear power and to oversee civilian nuclear research, nuclear weapons development and naval reactor program. The ERDA was combined with the Federal Energy Administration in 1977 to create the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The DOE has a number of departments that deal with nuclear materials, research and weapons development.

            The Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM) was established in 1982 to be responsible for the disposal of radioactive waste in the United States. From the World War Manhattan Project to the end of the Cold War in 1991, huge amounts of nuclear waste were generated as civilian nuclear power spread and a massive nuclear weapons stockpile was created in the US. With the creation of the DOE in 1977, the OCRWM was created to deal with the problem of permanent disposal. Since the early 1980, the OCRWM has dedicated most of its efforts to the creation of a nuclear waste depository at Yucca Mountain in southern Nevada. By 2005, over fifty thousand metric tons of spent nuclear fuel from civilian reactors had accumulated. Military nuclear waste was estimated to eventually comprise over twenty thousand canisters of solid waste. In 2005 it was discovered that some of the research on possible water infiltration of the Yucca Mountain Repository had be falsified in the 1990s to minimize concerns. The OCRWM is also responsible for the transport of nuclear waste from existing sites to the Repository.

            The Office of Legacy Management was created in 2003 to deal with radioactive and chemical contamination at over 100 sites across the U.S. Many of these sites were once used to develop, build and test nuclear weapons but have been shut down. The contamination exists in water, soil, landfills and in the buildings of the closed facilities. Because of the long half lives of radioactive isotopes used in nuclear weapons, the OLM will have to secure and decontaminate those sites for generations.

            The Office of Nuclear Energy was established to “promote nuclear power as a resource capable of meeting the Nation’s energy, environmental and national security needs by resolving technical and regulatory barriers through research, development and demonstration.” Some of its programs include working to improve reactor design and performance, managing research facilities, working on waste and proliferation issues, insuring adequate supplies of fuel for world nuclear reactors, trying to extend the lifespan of existing reactors and working on nuclear batteries for space and national security applications.

            The National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) was created in 2000 to manage and secure U.S. nuclear weapons, work against nuclear proliferation and develop naval nuclear reactors. It was also tasked with responding to nuclear and radiological emergencies in the U.S. The NNSA provides safe and secure transportation for nuclear weapons, nuclear weapon components and special nuclear materials.

 

 

In 1974 the Energy Reorganization Act broke up the Atomic Energy Commission and established the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to assume duties for regulating the U.S. nuclear industry. These duties include radioactive materials safety, reactor licensing and renewal, reactor safety and reactor security. They also include monitoring and regulation of the storage, security, recycling and disposal of spent nuclear fuel.

            The NRC is divided into four regions of the United States. Region I covers the northeastern states, Region II covers the southeastern states, Region III covers the Midwestern states and Region IV covers the western and south central states. There are 104 reactors producing electrical power and 36 reactors used for other purposes in these regions. Each of the reactors that produce power have onsite NRC inspectors to monitor daily operations. NRC Teams composed of a variety of specialists periodically carry out targeted inspections at the reactors. There are provisions for whistleblowers to report problems as part of the special NRC Allegations Program. Unfortunately there are cases where a whistleblower pointed out illegal practices which it turned out that the NRC had been aware of and had failed to respond to. The NRC also monitors training programs for nuclear workers and accreditation of training facilities.

            Like the Atomic Energy Commission before it, there has been concern that the NRC is not doing a competent job of regulating the nuclear industry and has become a servant instead, a situation called regulatory capture. The NRC has been found to have failed to enforce its regulations thoroughly and uniformly on the 104 nuclear power reactors and their operators. This failure to enforce regulations was found to not only be a matter of incompetence and neglect but the NRC has actually stated that it chooses not to enforce regulations in some cases. The NRC has been accused of surrendering some of its regulatory authority to the Institute for Nuclear Power Operations which was formed by the nuclear industry. In addition, at times the NRC has apparently made it difficult for the public to obtain information about and to participate in regulation of the nuclear industry. In spite of the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, the NRCs record of regulatory effectiveness has continued to decline.

            Many nuclear power plants have reached or are approaching the end of their projected fourty year life span. Operators have applied for and been granted twenty year extensions of their licenses by the NRC even though state legislatures and objected and a pattern of lies by plant operators with respect to dangerous safety issues has been ignored by the NRC. The Union of Concerned Scientists issued a report in 2011 stating that the NRC enforcement of safety rules has not been “timely, consistent, or effective.” The report claims that serious accidents have been narrowly avoided on a number of occasions because of NRC negligence.

            Following the Fukushima disaster in March of 2011, a group of concerned organizations and individuals have formally petitioned the NRC to “immediately suspend all licensing and other activities at 21 proposed nuclear reactor projects in 15 states until there is a thorough examination of all existing and proposed reactors. In response to pressure, the NRC is moving forward to implement new safety procedures to enable nuclear plant operators to adequately cope with natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis. We can only hope that the NRC become more effective before a major disaster destroys reactors and shuts down part of the power grid in the United States.

 

 

 

In 1946 President Harry S. Truman transferred control of atomic energy development from the military to civilian control by signing the McHahon/Atomic Energy Act. This Act created the Atomic Energy Commission or AEC. Congress passed the act after extensive debate involving scientist, military men and politicians over the future of atomic energy. The mandate of the commission was to “promote world peace, improve public welfare and strengthen free competition in private enterprise.”

            The Act which created the AEC gave it power to regulate the entire field of nuclear science and technology. Transfer of nuclear technology between the United States and other countries was prohibited and the FBI was charged with policing access to nuclear information. The AEC was granted a great deal of power and independence with its employees being exempt from the Civil Service rules. All production facilities and nuclear reactors would be owned by the federal government while laboratories such as Argonne National Laboratory would be under the control of the AEC.

            Although the AEC was charged with the development of peaceful uses of nuclear energy, most of its early work was dedicated to the development of the nuclear arsenal of the United States. The World War II Manhattan Project turned over its work to the new AEC which continued the evolution of atomic bomb as well as the development of the hydrogen bomb. The AEC oversaw two nuclear laboratories for weapons work, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. A project of nuclear testing was implemented in the American Southwest and an area in the Pacific Ocean.

            The General Advisory Committee of the AEC provided technical and scientific advice. A Military Liaison Committed was a bridge between the AEC and the United States Military. The Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy provided oversight. With its great power over all things nuclear in the United States, the AEC was the center of controversies.

            The AEC was in charge of all regulation of nuclear facilities. The Atomic Energy Act Amendments of 1954 cleared the way for the development of civilian nuclear reactors to provided electricity. This act required the AEC to both promote civilian nuclear power and to insure its safety. These contradictory mandates would prove to be difficult to reconcile.

            During the 1960s, critics claimed that the AEC regulations were not strong enough with regard to radiation protection, nuclear reactor safety, siting of power plants, danger to the environment and other concerns.

            In the early 1970s, the construction of nuclear power plants declined due to increasing construction costs and lowering demand for electricity. Construction of some partially built plants was halted. In 1974, Congress responded to criticisms of the AEC by abolishing the agency. The Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 created two new agencies. The Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) was set up to promote civilian nuclear power and to oversee civilian nuclear research, nuclear weapons development and naval reactor program. The ERDA was combined with the Federal Energy Administration in 1977 to create the U.S. Department of Energy. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission was also established by the 1974 Act to regulate the nuclear industry.

            With the enormous cost of nuclear power development, it was inevitable that there would be conflicts of interest in the AEC and absolutely necessary that its job be split between new agencies.